Economics and Climate: From Resource Determinism to Anthropogenic Transformation Introduction: Climate as Foundation and Threat to the Economic System The relationship between climate and economics is one of the oldest and most relevant in the social sciences. Historically, climate has shaped the resource base and transportation corridors, determining the specialization of regions and their development trajectories. In the 21st century, this connection has acquired a dramatically new dimension: anthropogenic climate change, from an ecological backdrop, has become a key macroeconomic risk capable of destabilizing global financial systems, supply chains, and social stability. Thus, climate acts simultaneously as an initial condition and a final challenge for economic activity. Historical Perspective: Climate as Architect of Economies Resource Determinism and Agriculture: Pre-industrial economies were directly dependent on the agro-climatic potential. The level of precipitation, the duration of the growing season, and average annual temperatures determined which crops could be grown (wheat in the temperate zone, rice in the monsoon Asia), which, in turn, influenced population density, social structure, and governance. The "grain" civilizations (Egypt, Mesopotamia) were formed in river valleys with predictable floods. Climate and Transport: Ice cover determined navigation in the north, monsoons — maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. Before the advent of steam heating and air conditioning, economic activity in hot or cold regions was seasonal and limited. The Industrial Revolution as "Liberation": With the widespread use of fossil fuels (coal, then oil and gas), the economy first gained the ability to overcome climate limitations to a significant extent. Factories could operate in winter, goods were transported year-round, and artificial heating and cooling were introduced. However, this "freedom" was based on a resource, the combustion of which has led to the current cli ... Read more