The existing unresolved disputes between the Central Asian countries lead to the use of international transport links as a tool of struggle. Uzbekistan uses this tool most actively in relation to Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The railway connection of these republics with the outside world passes through Uzbek territory, and there is no serious alternative to this yet. Overcoming this dependence is possible only if extremely expensive international projects are implemented.

Keywords: railway, transport connection, railway blockade, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan.

TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENTS IN TAJIKISTAN AND KYRGYZSTAN

Existing unresolved disputes between the countries of Central Asia lead to use of international transportation as instrument of struggle. Uzbekistan makes actively use of this tool against Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Railway communications of these two republics with the outside world pass through the Uzbek territory, and there is no serious alternative. Overcoming of the dependence is possible only through the implementation of highly expensive international projects.

Keywords: railway, transport, railway blockade, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan.

The relevance of this topic is caused by the existing tension in Tajik-Uzbek and, to a lesser extent, Uzbek-Kyrgyz relations. There are enough reasons for the development of various conflicts, and communications are becoming one of the tools of struggle. In general, Kyrgyzstan's level of tension with Uzbekistan and its degree of dependence on its intractable neighbor are significantly lower than Tajikistan's. But the methods of pressure that official Tashkent uses against both countries are the same, although with different accents. This is primarily the termination of energy supplies and the closure of borders with the suspension of transport links.

Transport links are one of the areas of confrontation in which the mentioned countries cannot yet oppose Uzbekistan. Both domestic and international transport links between Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are very much dependent on the routes laid through Uzbek territory, which is associated with local factors.

Ekaterina A. BORISOVA, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Researcher at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, bekaterina@mail.ru.

Ekaterina BORISOVA, PhD (in History), Research Fellow, Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow; bekaterina@mail.ru.

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features of the mountain topography. During the prosperous years of relations with the neighbor, 65-95% of all cargo transportation in Tajikistan was carried out via railways that led through Uzbek territory to key Tajik cities: Dushanbe, Khujand, Kurgan-Tyube and Kulyab [Vodno-energeticheskie..., 2008, p. 27; Sudbonosnye..., 2007].

However, the situation changed dramatically in 2010. The delivery of goods to and from Tajikistan by rail has been blocked by the neighboring country. As a result, Tajik trade relations with the outside world sharply declined. According to the Tajik side, the volume of transit cargo transportation in the first half of 2010 decreased by 40%, and economic losses from cargo retention in June 2010 exceeded $ 100 million in a few months [Tajikistan..., 2010]. In the future, Uzbekistan continued the practice of keeping wagons with equipment for the Rogun hydroelectric power station under construction in Tajikistan on its territory. Due to the actions of the Uzbek side, the supply of alumina for the main budget - forming enterprise of the country, the Tajik Aluminum Plant, also decreased. The trade turnover with Uzbekistan itself has fallen sharply, amounting to about $ 4.6 million in recent years. This is only 0.1% of Tajikistan's total trade turnover.

TRANSPORT LINKS IN TAJIKISTAN

Tajikistan's transport links are represented by a rare network of roads and an even rarer network of railways. In Soviet times, the railways located here were part of the Central Asian Railway. In 1991, this single complex began to disintegrate. First, the creation of the Turkmen Railway was announced on the basis of the Ashgabat and Chardzhou branches, and in 1994 the railways of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan were divided according to the territorial principle. All sections of the Kyrgyz railway, as well as all sections of the Tajik railway, were isolated from each other. There are six of them in Kyrgyzstan and three in Tajikistan. Moreover, on the territory of these countries today there is not a single railway route connecting the northern and southern regions. All meridian communication still passes through the regions of neighboring countries: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

In Tajikistan, all three existing railway lines are connected to Uzbek railway lines. The northernmost branch belonging to Tajikistan is only a segment of the route connecting the Uzbek cities of the Syrdarya region and the Ferghana Valley. In Tajikistan itself, this line passes through major cities in Sughd province, such as Khujand, Kanibadam and Shurab.

The capital of Tajikistan-Dushanbe-is approached from the territory of Uzbekistan by another Saryassia branch ( in Uzbek territory)-Yangi-Bazar (Kofarnihon). The border station on the territory of Tajikistan is Pakhtaabad.

The third branch, the southernmost, runs from Uzbek Termez through Uzbek Amuzang to Kurgan-Tyube. From there, you can continue on to either Yavan or Kulyab. Recently, this route has ceased to be an international one for reasons that will be discussed below. Now the western terminus of this line is the Tajik border town of Shaartuz. Interestingly, the Kurgan-Tyube - Kulyab railway line was previously narrow-gauge, but due to the decision taken in the early 1990s to eliminate the entire network of narrow-gauge roads along this route, construction of a wide-gauge line with a length of 132 km was started. The civil war in the republic suspended construction, which resumed in 1994-1995. The first section of the 30-km-long road to Sangtud was put into operation in December 1997, and in September 1998 another 10 km-to Sargazon station (near Dangar) [Tarkhov, B. G.]. The new railway reached Kulyab in 1999.

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The narrow - gauge Dushanbe-Kurgan - Tube-Nizhny Panj railway was much less fortunate in this respect. Here, instead of a narrow-gauge railway, nothing was provided for until recently. By the way, it was the only meridionally located railway in the republic.

There is no internal railway connection between the northern and southern regions of Tajikistan due to terrain difficulties: the northern and southern parts of the country are separated by the impassable Hissar Ridge. In order to travel from south to north, until 2011 it was possible to take the Dushanbe - Kanibadam train, which made a decent detour through the territories of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Now this train does not run for political reasons. Another option is to buy a ticket from Dushanbe to Khujand (for most local residents, this is an impossible waste) or use the highway laid through the Hissar Ridge. Until 2006, this road was closed for the entire winter period, since the Anzo pass (more than 3,300 m) could only be crossed in summer and early autumn. In 2006, the construction of the Anzob tunnel (officially known as Istiklol), which was started in 1988, was completed, and it became possible to travel by car from the southern regions of Tajikistan to the Sughd region at any time of the year. Travel time was reduced by 5 hours, and the distance was reduced by 30 km.

The Shahristan Tunnel under the Turkestan Ridge, officially opened in 2012, has further facilitated movement along the Dushanbe-Ayni-Istaravshan-Khujand-Buston-Chana road. Now the total travel time from Dushanbe to Khujand is about 5 hours. The tunnel became the longest in the entire post-Soviet space - 5253 m. And it is only 200 m longer than the Anzo one. This road, despite the fact that it is the only one in this direction, is a toll road.

Of course, in general, road transport cannot overshadow the advantages of railway transport. Therefore, there were reports in the Tajik press about the need to build a new railway connecting the north and south of the country. It was supposed to be pulled from Tursunzade through the Shahristan pass to connect with the existing northern branch in Istaravshan and Spitamen districts. This idea was announced in 2011, but it didn't go any further, obviously due to the extremely high price of the project.

To date, only the Vakhdat-Yavan project, designed to connect the southern and central branches of the railway, is being implemented in Tajikistan. This route is only 46 km long, but it passes through difficult terrain. It is planned to build three tunnels and five major bridges [Prime Minister..., 2014]. This road should become a section of railway connecting Dushanbe with the administrative center of the Khatlon region - the city of Kurgan-Tube. Today, it is impossible to get by rail from Dushanbe to Kurgan-Tyube, although this was previously possible: the railway route with a length of more than 460 km passed through the territory of Uzbekistan. The new road is being laid entirely on Tajik territory, and the length of the Dushanbe - Kurgan-Tube segment will be 125 km (Vakhdat-Yavan..., 2009). It is planned to be completed in 2016. In the future, this line should become part of the international railway route Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Tajikistan.

PROBLEMS OF EXISTING INTERNATIONAL ROUTES IN TAJIKISTAN: TRANSPORT BLOCKADE

The development of new routes connecting Tajikistan with the outside world, bypassing the Uzbek territory, is vital for the republic. If official Tashkent decides to block all rail and road connections with Tajikistan, the Tajik side will be almost completely isolated from the outside world. At the disposal of the Tajiks will remain only air traffic and mountain roads.

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highways to Kyrgyzstan and China, as well as a highway through politically unstable Afghanistan.

Is it possible to completely interrupt Uzbekistan's railway communication with Tajikistan? Unfortunately, the answer is yes. All conditions are created for this, and the beginning has already been made. As already mentioned, one of the three existing Tajik railway routes that had access to the Uzbek Termez and further-Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Russia - is no longer in operation. In November 2011, a railway bridge was partially destroyed by unidentified persons on the Galaba-Amuzang railway line near the Tajik border in Uzbekistan. The Uzbek side did not restore it, despite the fact that the damage was minor, and later, guided by "economic considerations", this section of the road was completely dismantled. As a result, the Moscow - Kulyab train, which left from Kazansky railway Station in Moscow twice a week, stopped moving. The movement of freight trains also stopped. Internal communication between the southern and central regions also became impossible. The Khatlon and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan are under a railway blockade. The Uzbek side proposed to transfer the goods and wagons stuck at the border to Tajik colleagues through the interstate junction point Kudukli, located on the Saryassia-Yangi-Bazar branch in Central Tajikistan, so that from there the goods would go to the south of the country. For Tajikistan, this meant huge losses and great difficulties, since the delivery of goods from the center of the republic to the south through Tajik territory is possible only by road through mountain passes. As a result of the closure of the Termez-Amuzang-Khatlon route, it became impossible to supply goods to the north of Afghanistan as well. Thus, Uzbekistan blocked the supply of NATO, which went not only through the Uzbek Termez, but also through Tajikistan, which was another blow to the pocket of the Tajik authorities.

Another international destination in Tajikistan is under threat of closure. This is a route that runs along the northern railway line. In this case, Tajikistan will lose the Khujand-Moscow train. The reason is that Uzbekistan is rapidly building the Angren-Pap railway (129 km) along the Tajik border. This road involves the construction of a 19-kilometer (!) the tunnel. The total project cost is $ 1.6 billion. Construction is carried out at the expense of the state budget, own funds of Uzbekistan Temir Yollari, the Fund for Reconstruction and Development of Uzbekistan (all together - $ 1.088 billion), as well as loans from the World Bank ($195 million) and the Export-Import Bank of China ($350 million). [Railway..., 2014; WB..., 2015]. It will connect the central regions of Uzbekistan and the Ferghana Valley, without crossing the borders of Tajikistan, as is happening now. Even today, Uzbekistan is trying to deliver goods to the Ferghana Valley exclusively on its own territory. For this purpose, the Angren International Logistics Center was launched on the basis of the Ablyk railway station. The center accepts goods transported by rail from various regions of Uzbekistan and sends them through the Kamchik mountain pass to Andijan, Namangan and Ferghana regions by road.

In general, in Uzbekistan, despite the existence of a well-developed railway network, freight transport is largely based on road transport, because the existing railway connection with the most densely populated areas passes through Tajikistan, which the Uzbek authorities on their own initiative abandoned. According to the Uzbek government, trucks transported 71% of Uzbekistan's total cargo volume in 2014 [Uzbekistan..., 2014].

When the Kamchik pass is closed due to avalanches, only air traffic remains to connect with the cities of the Ferghana Valley. Uzbek passenger trains traveling through the Sughd region of Tajikistan on the following routes

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Tashkent-Andijan and Bukhara-Andijan were canceled in December 2009. Currently, the Uzbek side transports mainly goods intended for Kyrgyzstan via the Sughd section of the railway [Tajikistan-Uzbekistan, 2010]. From an economic point of view, the construction by the Uzbek side of the mentioned extremely expensive railway route is impractical when it is possible to use the existing branch line through Tajikistan. However, in this case, political motives prevail over economic expediency and indicate the chosen vector for further deterioration of bilateral relations.

Due to strained Uzbek-Tajik relations, the Dushanbe-Khujand Tajik train connecting the cities of Central and Northern Tajikistan through Uzbek territory also stopped running in March 2011. As a result, Tajikistan has only one passenger train - Dushanbe-Moscow.

What overall plans the Uzbek authorities have for the railway leading through the Uzbek city of Saryassia to Dushanbe, along which the Dushanbe-Moscow train still runs, is unclear. In principle, Uzbekistan also does not need it as a dead end. If the Uzbek leadership decides that it can do without money for the transit of Tajik goods, it can block this branch as well.

Tajikistan may not even think about the construction of a new railway along the Zeravshan Valley from Ayni through Penjikent to Uzbek Samarkand, which was planned back in 1994. The last mention of this road by Tajik officials was in 2007. [Fateful..., 2007]. Since then, the situation has only worsened. This 90 km long route was mainly intended for the development of Tajik gold, silver, tin and tungsten deposits.

Today, all existing roads leading to Tajikistan are used by the Uzbek authorities as a reliable cash cow. The rates of the additional fee for entry and transit through the Uzbek territory are constantly growing. For several years now, no one has dared to cross the Tajik-Uzbek border, for example, in their own car, not only because of the extremely tight control from the Uzbek side, but also because of financial considerations. Cargo transport has no way out. Transport companies have to solve more and more new problems. For example, in January 2012, Uzbekistan unilaterally suspended the operation of 9 out of 16 checkpoints on the Tajik-Uzbek border [Experts..., 2012]. In 2014, despite the fact that according to an international agreement on the transit of trucks of Tajikistan through Uzbekistan should be given five days, the Uzbek authorities reduced this norm to three days, after which they gave themselves the right to fine drivers for $ 100. [Dushanbe..., 2015].

OPPORTUNITIES TO OVERCOME THE COMMUNICATION IMPASSE IN TAJIKISTAN

So, Tajikistan is vitally interested in any routes leading outside the republic and not crossing the Uzbek border. So far, there is only one of these projects under implementation. In March 2013, the Presidents of Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Tajikistan signed a memorandum on the construction of the Tajik-Turkmen railway passing through Afghanistan (TAT project). Later, we decided on the route, although it has not yet been issued in the form of an agreed document. The road will start in the Turkmen city of Kelif and go to Tajikistan in the town of Khoshadi (Tajikistan, Shaartuz district of Khatlon region). Khoshadi is the southernmost station of the southernmost Tajik branch line Amuzang-Yavan. Previously, the option of connecting to the Afghan section of the road near the city of Nizhny Panj was considered. But to do this, it is necessary to lay several tens of kilometers of track from Kurgan-Tube to the border with Afghanistan-a direction that used to be followed by a narrow-gauge railway.

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In the long term, the option of connecting this road with Kyrgyz railway lines is being considered.

The construction of this international railway began in June 2013 on the part of Turkmenistan. The project is funded by the Asian Development Bank, but its final cost has not yet been determined, as the parties have not yet agreed on the final version of the Tajik section of the route. The exact length of the road, which was supposed to be completed by 2015, is also still unknown. Both 400 and 160 km were called.

For Tajikistan, the direction to Turkmenistan is extremely promising. Railways to the Persian Gulf and Kazakhstan have already been laid through this country. In the future, Turkmenistan is expected to connect via the use of Caspian ports to the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars (BTK) railway route with access to Turkey and the Black Sea ports.

The Tajikistan-Turkmenistan railway will also allow overcoming the resource blockade: Tajikistan will open up opportunities for receiving Turkmen hydrocarbons. The supply of Uzbek natural gas to the country completely stopped in 2012, and the receipt of energy resources from other countries is limited to the same Uzbek side.

Interested parties are considering another route through Afghanistan and Tajikistan - from Iran to China. The international railway route Iran-Afghanistan-Tajikistan-Kyrgyzstan-China is currently under active discussion. At the end of 2014, a document on determining the route of the proposed regional railway was signed in Dushanbe at a meeting of experts from five countries. According to preliminary information, the railway will be laid from China's Kashgar through the territories of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to Afghanistan's Herat on the route Irkeshtam-Sarytash-Karamyk (border of Kyrgyzstan) - Vakhdat. In the future, it should be connected to the Iranian railway. The length of the Tajik road section will be 392 km. The most difficult section is Karamyk-Vakhdat with a length of 270 km. Taking into account the terrain, the construction of one kilometer of this section will require from $ 8 million to $ 10 million. It also provides for the construction of 16 kilometers of tunnels and 47 bridges [In Dushanbe..., 2014].

By the way, at a meeting of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in May 2013, another option for laying a railway that would connect Tajikistan with the outside world outside of Uzbek territories was announced. It was a question of the road Russia-Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan, and the initiator of consideration was Kyrgyzstan. Currently, the issue of financing this project by the Eurasian Development Bank is being discussed.

Tajikistan actively invites Russian and Kazakh investors to participate in its road projects. Unfortunately, so far only representatives of Iran and China are working in this area in Tajikistan.

At the end of 2014, there were reports of a slight improvement in Tajik-Uzbek relations. The parties expressed their intentions to reduce customs fees, and even the issue of visa cancellation was raised. So far, no positive results of these negotiations have been reported, but the very fact that such information appears gives us hope. At the beginning of 2015, the media reported on the resumption of air traffic between Tashkent and Dushanbe from March 29, 2015 [Messages..., 2015]. Officials did not comment on this data, but flight numbers were announced in the press. Later it became known that the decision on this issue was postponed indefinitely.

Given the existence of many unresolved problems between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, it is not worth counting on a significant improvement in relations in any case.

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RAILWAYS OF KYRGYZSTAN

As in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan's railway network has been disrupted. The main line runs in the north from Lugovaya station (territory of Kazakhstan) through Bishkek and Tokmak to Balykchi (on the shore of Lake Issyk-Kul), and in the south-west short branches with one or two stations enter the country from the territory of Uzbekistan: Uchkurgan-Tashkumyr, Karasu-Jalal-Abad-Kok-Yangak, Karasu-Osh, Akhunbabayeva-Ferghana-Kyzylkiya. The southern branches are only used for freight trains. In Soviet times, the northern road of Kyrgyzstan was part of the structure of the Alma-Ata Railway, and the southern branches belonged to the Central Asian Railway. The narrow-gauge Proletarsk-Sulukta branch line is still preserved in the republic. It crosses the Tajik-Kyrgyz border and is intended for the export of quartz sand from the Tajik deposit located on the territory of Kyrgyzstan.

The mentioned railways cover only a small percentage of the Kyrgyz territory and are located on the border areas. The entire central space is free of railway lines. This is due, as already mentioned, to the peculiarities of the mountain relief: almost the entire territory of Kyrgyzstan is cut by mountain ranges.

The Balykchi (Rybachye)Trans-Kyrgyz Railway was designed in 1993 to connect the four southern railway branches with the northern main line- Kochkorka-Kazarman-Kara-Keche-Jalal-Abad 900 km long. It was assumed that it would have to cross the mountains at an altitude of up to 1500 m. In 1998, the construction of the first Balykchi-Kochkorka section was started [Tarkhov, B. G.]. To date, the construction of the Trans-Kyrgyz Railway is considered only within the framework of international projects. Kyrgyzstan cannot independently develop transport communications on its own territory due to lack of funds. Even the repair of existing railway tracks in the republic is carried out by neighboring Kazakhstan.

Since 1997, the Kashgar (Western China)-Osh (Kirg) railway project has been discussed in the republic.-Andijan (Uzbek). Various options were proposed for this route, but in 2011 it was decided to lay a route through the Kyrgyz territory through the border Torugart, the Arpa Valley (Ferghana Ridge) with access to Uzgen and the Kara-Suu border with Uzbekistan. The planned length of the Kyrgyz section is 268.4 km, and the Chinese section is 165 km. Construction has not yet started, having stopped at the stage of a feasibility study (feasibility study). The project is considered frozen.

As an alternative to this direction, the already mentioned version of the railway line from Kashgar through Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to Afghanistan and beyond is proposed. All of these routes eventually lead to Iran. The initiator of various roads from China through the Central Asian countries is the Chinese side. In 2014, there was another surge in its activity. It is extremely important for China to develop its western continental territories, and developed communications with Central Asia and the Middle East will contribute to this. It is important to note that the Chinese and Iranian leaders are actively working on various options for routes that could connect the territories of their countries. Both sides benefit from the supply of Iranian hydrocarbons to China by land transport, as the sea routes are controlled by influential third countries and are highly dependent on the political background.

The Kyrgyz side treats Chinese proposals with great caution. For its financial participation in the projects, China asks to give it some mineral deposits. In addition, it is planned to build the road itself by Chinese citizens, which also causes concern to Kyrgyz parliamentarians and is considered almost an invasion of foreign troops. By more

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China does not want to concede one point: it insists that the track width should meet Chinese standards, i.e. be narrower than the standard gauge used in the former Soviet Union [Transkirgizskaya..., 2015]. In December 2014, at a meeting of officials to review the issue of connecting the five countries ' railway lines in Dushanbe, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan finally agreed to use the 1,435 mm gauge adopted in Iran and China as a basis.

The development of a railway route from Russia via Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Tajikistan and further to Iran, which was first proposed in 2013, is at a much earlier stage. Even a preliminary feasibility study of the project has not yet been prepared, only a statement of intent is available. It is assumed that China can join this project by building a branch line on its part. At the moment, it is not clear what route this railway can be laid on and whether it will coincide with the route being worked out by China and Iran. But it is clear that this project is actually a competitor to the China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan route.

HIGHWAYS OF KYRGYZSTAN

Despite the wary attitude of the Kyrgyz towards China, Chinese investments are involved in many communication projects in the country. In particular, the Chinese are allowed to build a grandiose North-South highway with a total length of 433 km. Its construction is being carried out with Chinese credit funds. This road will provide through road transit along the route Russia-Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan. The most difficult section in the Kyrgyz territory is the Kok - Art pass from Jalal-Abad, where there will be a tunnel with a length of 3,700 m [Some..., 2014].

In general, the road network in the republic is quite developed, and despite the mountain ranges, you can cross the country from West to East and from South to North by several routes. However, the condition of these roads requires special attention. At the expense of investments from international donors, the Bishkek-Osh transport corridors with access to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, Osh - Sarytash-Irkeshtam with access to China, Sarytash-Karamyk with access to Tajikistan have been rehabilitated to date. Another road leading to China is being restored: Bishkek-Naryn-Torugart. The Taraz-Talas-Suusamyr road is being rehabilitated. It connects the Talas region with other regions of Kyrgyzstan, as well as with the Zhambyl and Shymkent regions of Kazakhstan. Bypass sections on the Osh-Batken Isfana road are being built along the border with Uzbekistan [Some..., 2014].

In general, Kyrgyzstan has significantly more opportunities to communicate with the outside world than Tajikistan, outside of Uzbek territory. The lower dependence of the Kyrgyz on Uzbek communications makes the transport factor in pushing through Uzbek interests in the neighboring country not so relevant, but it is periodically used. Uzbekistan constantly restricts the number of open checkpoints on the border with Kyrgyzstan and exercises extremely strict control over incoming citizens.

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