VIII BOGD ZHAVZANDAMBA. АМЬДРАЛ БА ДОМОГ

Улаанбаатар: Адмон, 2011. 707 с.*

O. Batsaikhan is one of the leading scholars of Mongolia in the field of history of this country in the early XX century, a leading expert on the life and activities of the last great Khan of Mongolia, Bogdo-gegen Dzhebtsundamba-khutukhta VIII (1869-1924). A peer-reviewed book is the result of the author's long-term research in this field. This is the third edition: the first two were published in Ulaanbaatar in 2007 and 2009.

The book consists of an author's preface, an editor's preface, 22 chapters, a conclusion and appendices, and includes about 260 illustrations. These are old photographs of Bogdo-gegen, other people, places, and temples, black-and-white and color facsimiles of documents (including Mongolia's treaties with Russia, Tibet, and China), and color photographs of objects related to Bogdo-gegen. Most of the photos were published for the first time. The sources used include data from 16 Mongolian archives, 5 Russian archives, two Japanese archives, one Taiwanese archive, and one American archive, as well as 200 publications.

The preface discusses the novelty of the book and the differences between the third edition and the previous ones.

Chapter 1 examines the situation in Mongolia by the beginning of the 20th century. Based on numerous materials, mainly from Russian archives, the author concludes that at the beginning of the 20th century Mongolia was drawn into the sphere of influence of the Russian Empire, which did not intend to include it in its territory. Russia attached great importance to Mongolia due to its geopolitical position and closely followed the development of the situation in it. The author describes in detail the stay of Dalai Lama HS in Mongolia, where he left in connection with the invasion of Tibet by an English detachment from India. Although there are references in Russian archival materials that during this period the Dalai Lama XIII and Bogdo-gegen VIII did not meet, the author cites Mongolian data that such meetings took place, but secretly: the Manchurian administration was

* Batsaikhan O. The last Mongol great Khan Bogdo De/sebtsundamba-hutukhta VIP. Life and legend. Ulaanbaatar: Admon Publ., 2011, 707 p.

against contacts of both hierarchs. The struggle of the Mongols against the "new policy" of the Manchu authorities aimed at turning Mongolia into a Chinese province, against their economic measures, as well as the Mongol riots in the capital of Outer Mongolia against the Chinese and the Manchu amban (civil governor) of Sando (Sandow) in 1910 are described in detail. It is shown that by 1911 Bogdo-gegen behaved independently in relation to Sando. A special section describes in detail the activities of the Russian trade expedition to Mongolia in 1912.

Chapter 2 deals with the period immediately before the declaration of independence in 1911, in particular with the activities of the Manchu - Chinese administration in the Mongolian capital, Ikh-khure. With the approval of Bogdo-gegen, meetings of Mongol princes were held: in 1910, the next-in the summer of 1911, and it was decided to proclaim an independent state. At the meetings, the "General Provisional Administrative Bureau for Khure Khalkha Affairs" was created - in fact, a secret provisional government, which decided to ask for help in Russia. The preparation and dispatch of the Mongolian delegation to Russia is described in detail. Brief biographical information is provided for each of the three members of the delegation (chin-wan Handdorj, Da-lama Tserenchimed, Haisan-gong) and the five Mongols who accompanied them. The delegation's stay in Russia is described. The text of the Declaration of Independence of Mongolia on December 1, 1911 is given. According to Russian eyewitnesses-Shchekin, Lavdovsky, Semyonov, Shishmarev-the events during the expulsion of Amban Sando and his officials from the capital are being reconstructed.

Chapter 3 is devoted to the biography and activities of Sando, the last amban in the Mongolian capital. This chapter is interesting not only for a detailed account of Sando's life and activities based on preserved sources, but also for a vivid description of the encounters with him by eyewitnesses and notable facts (for example, that Amban was fond of poetry). It describes how Sando left for China via Russia. The Mongolian Provisional Government announced the assumption of power.

Chapter 4 tells the story of six people who took state power away from the Manchu authorities. It provides brief biographies and descriptions of the political activities of six leaders-Tushe-gong Chagdarzhav, Jun-wan Gombosuren, Beise Gombosuren, chin-wan Tsedensodnom, Namsrai-gong, da-lama Tserenchimed-and two others who took part in these events-erdene-wan Khanndorj and Haisan-gong. It is reported that the provisional government of Mongolia contacted the Russian consul in Ikh-khure and informed him of the appointment of the date of the elevation of Bogdo-gegen VIII to the great khans by the decision of the noyons of all the aimags of Khalkha. The author shows the important role of Tserenchimed (which was previously underestimated) in the formation of the statehood of Mongolia.

Chapter 5 deals with the culmination of the national revolution of December 1911, the enthronement of the eighth Bogdo Dzhebtsundamba-Khutukhta as the Great Khan of Mongolia. It gives a detailed description of the enthronement ceremony on December 29, 1911, held in accordance with the traditions of the Mongols and the Buddhist religion. This is the first consistent and detailed description of the enthronement ceremony of Bogdo-gegen VIII based on published and archived data. The article provides an overview of foreign responses to the declaration of independence of Mongolia in 1911, as well as reports on the reaction of Mongols in different regions to this event. According to archival data, it is shown that from 1912 to 1922, December 29 was celebrated in Mongolia as Independence Day, and then the Mongolian People's Party (MNP) changed the date. In 2007, the celebration of this day was officially restored.

Chapter 6 describes the symbols of theocratic power that Bogdo Khan received during his enthronement. They reflect the symbolism of the Mongol great Khans and Tibetan Buddhism (the latter has its roots in ancient India). Other monarchical attributes of Bogdo Khan's power are also described: a crown, a throne, an offering of 300 white camels, 2000 white horses (originating from symbols of vassalage to the Mongol great khans) , etc. Some symbols are described in detail (for example, soembo, which has since become the coat of arms of the State of Mongolia). The history of the song that became the anthem of Bogdo-Khan Mongolia is very interesting, in particular its last verse, reflecting the civilizational unity of Mongolia with Tibet: "By the decree of the Dalai Lama, let the poisonous enemy be defeated, And let everyone live a happy life with the blessing of the goddess Tara" (p.197). However, the book does not always explain the symbolism. For example, only the appearance of the crown and deel (robe)are described Bogdo Khan (p. 194-195), but the symbolism of their attributes is not explained. The author describes the history of the creation of the famous statue of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva-Magjid Zhanraiseg, its worship by the Mongols, its destruction and removal during the reign of the Reds.

Chapter 7 contains many assessments by various individuals of the activities of Bogdo-gegen VIII and its role in Mongolia's independence. The author shows why the Tibetan religious leader of the Mongols, Jebzundamba-Hutukhta, was able to become the one the Mongols followed during the collapse of the Qing Empire, and why such a leader could not be promoted from the descendants of Genghis Khan. The same chapter contains a detailed biography of Bogdo-gegzna VIII, compiled using both published biographies and previously unpublished archival materials. The chapter provides several texts of Mongolian documents on these issues and excerpts from memoirs of European authors. These excerpts are not always analyzed, although the accuracy of some of them is questionable. This applies, for example, to the rumors included in the memoirs of M. G. Tornovsky, about a deputation with Da Lamas, allegedly sent from Tibet on the instructions of Beijing to eliminate Bogdo-gegen VIII (pp. 278-279). Tornovsky is one of the best sources on the history of Baron R. F. Ungern, but he did not know much about Buddhism and the Mongolian theocracy. For example, the da-lama was considered "lama doctors" or "lama poisoners" (in reality, the da-lama is an administrative position in the monastery's chancellery).

Chapter 8 is devoted to the first international treaty of the Bogdo government, or the 1912 treaty of friendship with Russia, and a detailed description of the elaboration and conclusion of this treaty (in the Russian text - the agreement) in 1912. In addition, it describes the situation of Mongolia at that time.

Chapter 9 describes the internal politics of the Bogdo-gahan Government. A long list of decisions of the monarchical Government of Mongolia (from 1911 to 1919) on foreign and domestic policy issues is very useful. This list refutes the widely held view that there was virtually no State-building in Bogdo-Khan Mongolia.

Chapter 10 describes the first foreign policy steps of the Bogdo Khan government. Bogdo Khan's correspondence with the President of the Republic of China Yuan Shikai is described. It follows that the latter, trying to justify China's "rights" to Mongolia, focused on the injustices of the former Qing administration against the Mongols. The new era of the "republic of five nationalities" put an end to them, without which Mongolia allegedly cannot exist for economic and political reasons. In his reply, Bogdo Khan pointed out that the Chinese and Mongols have always lived as neighboring peoples and that after the declaration of independence, the Mongols do not want to join China. The article describes the visit of Mongolian Foreign Minister Handdorj to Russia, as well as the activities of Bogdo-gegen VIII for the reunification of Outer and Inner Mongolia, Barga and the national liberation movement against China in these territories. The texts of Bogdo Khan's letters to the Russian Emperor are given.

Chapter 11 deals with the Mongol-Tibetan Treaty of 1913 as a foreign policy act of the Bogdo Khan Government. The book (as in its two previous editions) contains a color facsimile of the Mongolian and Tibetan versions of this treaty. It should be noted that the author was the first to discover and publish facsimiles of the originals of this treaty stored in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia, a treaty whose very existence has been questioned for many decades by a number of Western and Chinese authors.

Chapter 12 tells the story of Bogdo Khan's letter to the Emperor of Japan, which was intended to help Japan annex Inner Mongolia to Outer Mongolia and open a Japanese representative office in the Mongolian capital. The author found that letters were also sent from Mongolia to the United States, Great Britain, Germany and France, and their government officials discussed the Mongolian issue to some extent.

Chapter 13 contains an analysis of the role of Bogdo Khan in the conclusion of the triple Russian-Mongolian-Chinese Kyakhta Agreement of 1915. It discusses the assessments of this agreement by researchers from different countries and provides an analysis of the agreement itself. Of particular interest is the "Notebook of Comments on the meaning and content of the Sino-Russian-Mongolian Treaty" prepared by the Mongolian Foreign Ministry for Bogdo Khan. It provides a brief description of the negotiations in Kyakhta and a generally positive assessment of the signed agreement.

Chapter 14 is devoted to the activities of the Government of Bogdo Khan after the conclusion of the Kyakhta Agreement.

Chapter 15 tells the story of Bogdo Khan and Baron Ungern, describing the events from the abolition of Mongolia's autonomy by General Xu Shuzhen to the entry of Soviet troops into Mongolia to defeat Baron Ungern. The chapter is a good example of an objective and unbiased analysis of the issue. At the same time, it provides extensive citations without discussion

from the book by F. A. Ossendovsky "Both animals, people, and gods" about his meetings with Bogdo-gegen VIII and the words of the monarch that Ossendovsky allegedly heard. An analysis of Ossendowski's book in comparison with his diary showed that the information he provided about Bogdo-gegen and Buddhism is based on literature, other people's stories and personal observations, and there are large distortions in them1.

Chapter 16 deals with the interaction of Bogdo-gegen VIII with the MNP people's Government. Some information is published for the first time (for example, about the arrest of 211 people by the Reds, including former ministers, in the first days after the Reds occupied the capital on July 6, 1921). The text of the so-called Oath Agreement, which deprived Bogdo Khan of the right to influence important state decisions, is given. It was adopted on November 1, 1921 by the People's Government at its 21st session. The author's research showed that it was actually not a contract (involving two parties), but a unilateral document on the rules established by the new government: there is no evidence that this document was approved by Bogdo Khan (p. 516).

Chapter 17 deals with the demise of Bogdo-gahan VIII and the events surrounding it. The cause of death of Bogdo-gahan VIII is not documented. It was assumed that he died of throat cancer. But the author cites a number of old people's stories that the cause of death was poisoning and that it was committed by the people of the famous revolutionary E. D. Rinchino (pp. 528-529).

Chapter 18 describes the monastic and other properties of Bogdo-gegen VIII, the monasteries and clergy that were under his influence. A brief history of the foundation's formation since the 17th century is given. Based on the Mongolian and Russian testimonies, an attempt was made to recreate the composition of the collections of various objects kept in the palace of Bogdo-gegen VIII before his death. Some of the objects that have survived to this day are shown in color photographs (pp. 540-550).

Chapter 19 deals with the expropriation of Bogdo Khan's property by the Reds after his death. Based on the materials of the Mongolian archives, detailed lists of confiscated items are given. The lists of what was sold or transferred to state and party institutions and party functionaries are quite remarkable.

Chapter 20 is devoted to the library of Bogdo-gahan VIII, which he collected throughout his life and which included more than a thousand volumes. In addition to books in Mongolian, there were many books in Tibetan, Manchu, and Chinese, including those on history (especially Mongolia) and state-building. Many books on European medicine, astronomy, and other sciences were translated into Mongolian by Bogdo's edicts. The source classification of these books is given, as well as information about Bogdo-gegen's payment for the work on codifying the Mongolian legislation of 1913-1918. Currently, part of the library of Bogdo-gegen VIII is in the collections of the National Library of Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar) and the main monastery of Gandantegchenlin. The rest was looted or destroyed.

Chapter 21 is devoted to the search for a new reincarnation of Bogdo-gahan. The chapter ends with a summary of the proclamation of Bogdo-gegen IX.

Chapter 22 is dedicated to the children of Bogdo-gahan VIII. He did not have any children of his own, but he had many adopted children, a brief biography of which is given in this chapter.

In the "Conclusion", the author summarizes the results of the activities of Bogdo-gegen VIII. The most important of them he rightly considers the revival of the Mongolian nation and the independent State of Mongolia in the XX century. The author's interpretation of the story and conclusions are well supported by factual material. However, the term "revolution" is now so often used for the events of 1911 in Mongolia (including in a peer-reviewed book) that it has become common for them. Although the word "revolution" has received many meanings, it is better to apply it to history in the well-known sense as a sharp change from one socio-economic or political system to another. And in 1911, the system in Mongolia remained the same - feudal. Consequently, the events of 1911 were not a revolution, but a successful national liberation movement.

In the form of appendices at the end of the book (pp. 606-685), Mongolian (in Cyrillic) and Russian transcriptions and color facsimiles of the most important documents on the topic of the work are given. There is a list of references, subject, name and geographical indexes.

The book under review undoubtedly represents an important contribution to historical science. It is useful for Mongolian scholars and anyone interested in the history of Mongolia in the 20th century. It seems appropriate to translate it into English and Russian.

¹ Kuzmin S. L., Reit L. Yu. Zapiski F. A. Ossendovsky as a source on the history of Mongolia / / Vostok (Oriens). 2008. No. 5. pp. 97-110.

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